ARCHITECTURE - Reaching for the Sky
Architecture is
the art and science of designing buildings and structures. A building reflects
the scientific and technological achievements of the age as well as the ideas
and aspirations of the designer and client. The appearance of individual
buildings, however, is often controversial.
The use of an
architectural style cannot be said to start or finish on a specific date.
Neither is it possible to say exactly what characterizes a particular movement.
But the origins of what is now generally known as modern architecture can be
traced back to the social and technological changes of the 18th and 19th
centuries.
Instead of using
timber, stone and traditional building techniques, architects began to explore
ways of creating buildings by using the latest technology and materials such as
steel, glass and concrete strengthened steel bars, known as reinforced
concrete. Technological advances also helped bring about the decline of rural
industries and an increase in urban populations as people moved to the towns to
work in the new factories. Such rapid and uncontrolled growth helped to turn
parts of cities into slums.
By the 1920s
architects throughout Europe were reacting against the conditions created by industrialization. A
new style of architecture emerged to reflect more idealistic notions for the
future. It was made possible by new materials and construction techniques and
was known as Modernism.
By the 1930s many
buildings emerging from this movement were designed in the International Style.
This was largely characterized by the bold use of new materials and simple,
geometric forms, often with white walls supported by stilt like pillars. These
were stripped of unnecessary decoration that would detract from their primary
purpose — to be used or lived in.
Walter Gropius,
Charles Jeanneret (better known as Le Corbusier) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
were among the most influential of the many architects who contributed to the
development of Modernism in the first half of the century. But the economic
depression of the 1930s and the second world war (1939-45) prevented their
ideas from being widely realized until the economic conditions improved and
war-torn cities had to be rebuilt. By the 1950s, the International Style had
developed into a universal approach to building, which standardized the
appearance of new buildings in cities across the world.
Unfortunately,
this Modernist interest in geometric simplicity and function became exploited
for profit. The rediscovery of quick-and-easy-to-handle reinforced concrete and
an improved ability to prefabricate building sections meant that builders could
meet the budgets of commissioning authorities and handle a renewed demand for
development quickly and cheaply. But this led to many badly designed buildings,
which discredited the original aims of Modernism.
Influenced by Le
Corbusier’s ideas on town planning, every large British city built multistorey
housing estates in the 1960s. Mass-produced, low-cost high-rises seemed to
offer a solution to the problem of housing a growing inner-city population. But
far from meeting human needs, the new estates often proved to be windswept
deserts lacking essential social facilities and services. Many of these
buildings were poorly designed and constructed and have since been demolished.
By the 1970s, a
new respect for the place of buildings within the existing townscape arose.
Preserving historic buildings or keeping only their facades (or fronts) grew
common. Architects also began to make more use of building styles and materials
that were traditional to the area. The architectural style usually referred to
as High Tech was also emerging. It celebrated scientific and engineering
achievements by openly parading the sophisticated techniques used in
construction. Such buildings are commonly made of metal and glass; examples are
Stansted airport and the Lloyd’s building in London.
Disillusionment at
the failure of many of the poor imitations of Modernist architecture led to
interest in various styles and ideas from the past and present. By the 1980s
the coexistence of different styles of architecture in the same building became
known as Post Modern. Other architects looked back to the classical tradition.
The trend in architecture now favors smaller scale building design that
reflects a growing public awareness of environmental issues such as energy
efficiency. Like the Modernists, people today recognize that a well-designed
environment improves the quality of life but is not necessarily achieved by
adopting one well defined style of architecture.
Twentieth century
architecture will mainly be remembered for its tall buildings. They have been
made possible by the development of light steel frames and safe passenger
lifts. They originated in the US over a century ago to help meet the demand for
more economical use of land. As construction techniques improved, the
skyscraper became a reality.
Ruth
Coleman
Questions 29 – 35
Complete the table below using information from
Reading Passage 3.
Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 29 – 35 on your answer
sheet.
|
PERIOD |
STYLE
OF |
BUILDING |
CHARACTERISTICS |
|
Before
18th |
Example |
...
(29) ... |
|
|
1920s |
introduction
of |
steel,
glass and |
exploration
of latest |
|
1930s
- |
...
(31) ... |
geometric
forms |
|
|
1960s |
decline
of |
pre-fabricated |
...
(32) ... |
|
1970s |
end
of Modernist |
traditional
materials |
...
(33) ... |
|
1970s |
beginning
of |
metal
and glass |
sophisticated
techniques paraded |
|
1980s |
Post-Modernism |
...
(35) ... |
Questions 36 – 40
Reading Passage 3 describes a number of
cause-and-effect relationships. Match each Cause (36 – 40) in List A,
with its Effect (A – H) in List B.
Write your answers (A – H) in boxes
36 – 40 on your answer sheet.
NB There are more effects in List B than you will need, so you will not use all of them. You may use any effect more than once if you wish.
|
List A CAUSES |
List B EFFECTS
|
|
36
A
rapid movement of people from rural areas to cities is triggered by technological
advance. 37
Buildings
become simple and functional. 38
An
economic depression and the 39
Multistorey
housing estates are 40
Less
land must be used for
|
A
The
quality of life is improved. B
Architecture
reflects the age. C
A
number of these have been knocked down. D
Light
steel frames and lifts are developed. E
Historical
buildings are preserved. F
All
decoration is removed. G
Parts
of cities become slums. H
Modernist
ideas cannot be put into practice until the second half of the 20th century
|